Formatted to meet the serious student's needs, the content in thisStudent Edition reflects topics covered in accredited landscapearchitectural programs, making it an excellent choice for arequired text in landscape architecture, landscape design,horticulture, architecture, and planning and urban design programs. Inaddition, expert advice guides readers through importantconsiderations such as material life cycle analysis, environmentalimpacts, site security, hazard control, environmental restorationand remediation, and accessibility.
Visit the Companion web site:wiley. Faithfully restored, it is true to the original in every detail and made to exacting specifications for photoreproduction, paper, printing, and binding. It provides you with access to the remarkable drawings of the original edition in vivid detail. You'll find every topic in this reproduction that appeared in the original, from brickwork, cut stone and stonework, architectural terra cotta, masonry and tile, and slate, copper, zinc, and clay tile roofing to balloon, braced, and Western framing, steel casements, double-hung and dormer windows, metal lath and plaster, and hundreds of other architectural details.
Also available in a limited, numbered, slipcased edition or a Deluxe Edition. A key reference for architects, builders, and educators whose work involves building maintenance and restoration, it brings back into print hundreds of pages that no longer appear in the current edition of Architectural Graphic Standards but which have real value and relevance for today's architectural practice.
Chapters include data and details for residential design, sitework and landscaping, stairs, fireplaces, energy-related issues such as sun shading and solar control, and more. Of particular interest is the information-on topics such as stonework and terra cotta, plank and beam framing, roofing systems, mill construction, and pneumatic tube conveyors-concerning systems and techniques no longer used in contemporary design but still found in buildings subject to remodeling and adaptive reuse.
Throughout, the book is made easy to use with the help of useful guidance on the interpretation of the older pages and annotations placing the material in a CSI MasterFormat TM context.
Filled with well-presented visual examples that offer important practical insights into the evolution of twentieth-century design and practice, this unique volume is an important working tool and a valuable addition to every architectural library. Architectural Graphic Standards, 11th Edition.
Henry Shekhtman. A short summary of this paper. With more than 8, architectural illustrations, including both reference drawings and constructible architectural details, this book provides an easily accessible graphic reference for highly visual professionals.
Designed to give studentsthe critical information they require, this is an essentialreference for anyone studying landscape architecture anddesign. Formatted to meet the serious student's needs, the content in thisStudent Edition reflects topics covered in accredited landscapearchitectural programs, making it an excellent choice for arequired text in landscape architecture, landscape design,horticulture, architecture, and planning and urban design programs. Inaddition, expert advice guides readers through importantconsiderations such as material life cycle analysis, environmentalimpacts, site security, hazard control, environmental restorationand remediation, and accessibility.
Visit the Companion web site:wiley. Revised for the first time since , Architectural Graphic Standards, Student Edition gives students their own handy resource. Carefully abridged from the Eleventh Edition of Architectural Graphic Standards, this Student Edition features the same richly detailed graphics and text that have made Architectural Graphic Standards a classic, but updated and reorganized in a way that is relevant to today's student.
Thousands of illustrations and a rich index offer immediate access to hundreds of architectural elements, while the wide variety of topics covered makes this work relevant throughout a student's architecture education and into the early stages of professional practice.
Author : Daniel L. When it was published in , this cornerstone edition of Ramseyand Sleeper's Architectural Graphic Standards was the very firstbook to present the accepted architectural practices of the time ina clear and accessible graphic form. Now finally available in paperback, this landmark reference stillhas much to offer us today, with beautifully illustrated practicalinformation on traditional architectural standards, methods, andmaterials that cannot be found elsewhere.
Covering all facets of building construction from foundations tointerior finishes, it will be valued by a new generation ofarchitects, design professionals, and others involved in therestoration and renovation of historic buildings as well as anyonewith an interest in architectural history. Author : Osamu A. This new Third Edition emphasizes the importance of communicating general design concepts through specific working drawings. Chapters proceed logically through each stage of development, beginning with site and foundation plans and progressing to elevations, building sections, and other drawings.
New features of this Third Edition include: Coverage of the latest CAD technologies and techniques Environmental and human design considerations Supplemental step-by-step instructions for complex chapters Ten case studies, including five fully evolved case studies Hundreds of additional computer-generated drawings and photographs, including three-dimensional models and full-size buildings shown in virtual space Tips for establishing a strategy for developing construction documents This new edition also presents completely updated material on metric conversions, code analysis, masonry, and steel.
Sets of working drawings for five different buildings are followed layer by layer from design concept through the finished construction documents. A companion Web site www. The Professional Practice of Architectural Working Drawings, Third Edition is an invaluable book for students in architecture, construction, engineering, interior design, and environmental design programs, as well as beginning professionals in these fields. The transparency of the tracing paper helps maintain a visual connection to the context of the drawing.
The successive repetition of short lengths or measurements can often result in an accumulation of minute errors. It is therefore advantageous to be able to subdivide an overall length into a number of equal parts.
Being able to subdivide any A B given length in this manner is useful for constructing the risers and runs of a stairway, as well as for establishing the coursing of such construction as a tiled floor or masonry wall. Using an angle that is too acute would make it difficult to ascertain the exact point of intersection. We can lay out and develop work on screen and either print it out or save the file for future editing.
Questions of scale and placement can be deferred since these aspects can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final graphic image. In hand drafting, the result of the drawing process is seen immediately but adjustments to scale and placement are difficult to make. Digital Multiplication The ability to create, move, and place copies of a line or shape is easily accomplished in digital drawing programs.
A B Digital Subdivision We can subdivide any line segment in a manner similar to the process we use in hand drafting.
We can also distribute lines and shapes evenly between the two endpoints of the line segment. Whether subdividing by hand drafting or in a digital drawing program, the process of working from the general to the specific, from the larger whole to the smaller parts, remains the same.
For other angles, use a protractor or an adjustable triangle. The diagrams to the left illustrate how to construct three common geometric shapes—an equilateral triangle, a square, and a pentagon.
Digital shapes have two attributes: stroke and fill. Digital Transformations Once created, a digital shape can be transformed by scaling, rotating, reflecting, or shearing. Any vector-based shape is easy to modify because the mathematical description of its underlying geometry is embedded in the software routine. Because vector images are resolution independent, they can be output to the highest quality at any scale. Any of these transformations can be repeated a number of times until the desired image is achieved.
Three distinct types of drawing systems have evolved over time to accomplish this mission: multiview, paraline, and perspective drawings. This chapter describes these three major drawing systems, the principles behind their construction, and their resulting pictorial characteristics. The discussion does not include media that involve motion and animation, made possible by computer technology.
Nevertheless, these visual systems of representation constitute a formal graphic language that is governed by a consistent set of principles. Understanding these principles and related conventions is the key to creating and reading architectural drawings.
These projectors are also called sight lines in perspective projection. Three distinct projection systems result from the relationship of the projectors to each other as well as to the picture plane.
Once the information for a three-dimensional construction or environment has been entered into a computer, 3D CAD and modeling software can theoretically present the information in any of these projection systems. We categorize these pictorial systems into multiview drawings, paraline drawings, and perspective drawings. These pictorial views are available in most 3D CAD and modeling programs.
Parallel projectors therefore represent these major faces in their true size, shape, and proportions. This is the greatest advantage of using orthographic projections—to be able to describe facets of a form parallel to the picture plane without foreshortening. Ambiguity of depth is inherent in any orthographic projection, as the third dimension is flattened onto the picture plane. Only by looking at related orthographic projections can this information be discerned.
In architectural drawing, top views are called plans. In architectural drawing, front and side views are called elevations. The top or plan view revolves upward to a position directly above and vertically aligned with the front or elevation view, while the side view revolves to align horizontally with the front view.
The result is a coherent set of related orthographic views. Only by looking at related orthographic projections are we able to understand the three-dimensional form of each object. We should therefore study and represent three- dimensional forms and constructions through a series of related orthographic projections. Properly speaking, any orthographic projection is a paraline drawing.
Conversely, nonaxial lines are never scalable. Strictly speaking, axonometric projection is a form of orthographic projection in which the projectors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the picture plane.
The difference between orthographic multiview drawings and an axonometric single-view drawing is simply the orientation of the object to the picture plane. A principal face or set of planes of the subject is usually oriented parallel to the picture plane and is therefore represented in accurate size, shape, and proportion. In architectural drawing, there are two principal types of oblique drawings: plan obliques and elevation obliques.
These horizontal planes are therefore shown in true size and shape, while the two principal sets of vertical planes are foreshortened. This set is therefore shown in true size and shape, while the other vertical set and the principal horizontal set of planes are both foreshortened. Unlike the parallel projectors in orthographic and oblique projections, the projectors or sightlines in perspective projection emanate from this station point.
Picture plane PP Pictorial Characteristics of Perspective Drawings The radiating sight lines in perspective give rise to the two principal pictorial characteristics of perspective drawings: convergence of parallel lines and reduced size with distance.
Objective Views A well-drawn perspective excels in conveying the experience of being in a three-dimensional spatial environment. We can view the drawings from various angles and be comfortable in reading the objective information.
Our eyes can roam over the expanse of a plan or paraline drawing and be able to correctly interpret the graphic information. There is an ongoing question regarding how to use these capabilities to simulate more effectively the way we experience space. At these scales, the degree of convergence of parallel lines is so slight that a paraline view is usually a better and more efficient choice.
No one drawing can ever reveal everything about its subject. The choice of a particular drawing system influences how we view the resulting graphic image, establishes which design issues are made visible for evaluation and scrutiny, and directs how we are inclined to think about the subject of the drawing. In selecting one drawing system over another, therefore, we make conscious as well as unconscious choices about what to reveal as well as what to conceal.
These advantages arise from the ability to undo an action or series of operations, or to save one version of a drawing while working on a copy and return to the saved version if necessary.
Even digital printers and plotters have paper size limitations. The scale of a drawing determines how much detail can be included in the graphic image. Conversely, how much detail is desirable determines how large or small the scale of a drawing should be. Vector drawings, in particular, can be reduced or enlarged without degrading the quality of the image. In doing so, we should be careful to distinguish between the size of the image viewed on a monitor, which can be reduced and enlarged independent of its real-world size, and the scale of the output from a printer or plotter.
Managing and organizing the amount of data in a digital drawing is also important because large-scale drawings call for more detail while small-scale drawings require less. Printing or plotting a small-scale drawing that contains too much data can result in an image that is too dense to read. Design drawings, therefore, focus on illustrating and clarifying the essential solid-void nature of forms and spaces, scale and proportional Design drawing relationships, and other sensible qualities of space.
For these reasons, design drawings convey information primarily through graphic means. Construction drawings, on the other hand, are intended to inform the builder or fabricator about the implementation and realization of a design. These contract drawings, which constitute part of a legal document, often rely on abstract rather than pictorial conventions and include dimensions, notes, and specifications.
Construction drawing The prevailing method for producing construction drawings is through the use of CAD and BIM technologies, especially during the design development and construction documentation phases of the design process. Building information modeling BIM is a digital technology that builds on CAD capabilities and uses a database of project information and three-dimensional, dynamic modeling software to facilitate the exchange and interoperability of building information.
The ability to create, manage, and coordinate such aspects as building geometry, spatial relationships, lighting analysis, geographic information, and quantities and properties of building materials and components is a powerful design tool. BIM technologies can be used for the life-cycle of a building from design to visualization studies; production of contract documents; simulation and analysis of building performance; scheduling, coordination, and optimization of the construction process; pricing and budgeting for equipment, labor, and materials; and management of facilities operation.
Perhaps the most critical of these is the insufficient contrast in line weights to distinguish between what is cut in plan and section drawings. Here are examples of typical CAD drawings overlaid with contrasting line weights and values to illustrate how they can convey a sense of depth and improve the readability of architectural drawings.
Floor Plan For more on defining plan cuts, see pages 54— Each is an orthographic projection of a particular aspect of a three-dimensional object or construction. These orthographic views are abstract in the sense that they do not match optical reality. They are a conceptual form of representation based on what we know about something rather than on the way it might appear to the eye. In architectural design, multiview drawings establish two-dimensional fields on which we are able to study formal and spatial patterns as well as scalar and proportional relationships in a composition.
The ability to regulate size, placement, and configuration also makes multiview drawings useful in communicating the graphic information necessary for the description, fabrication, and construction of a design.
P LA N S If we enclose an object within a transparent picture-plane box, we can name the principal picture planes and the images projected orthographically onto these planes.
Each orthographic view represents a different orientation and a particular vantage point from which to view the Pla object. Each plays a specific role in the development and n communication of a design. They represent a view looking down on an object, building, or scene from above. Note especially that plans are unable to provide precise information about the vertical dimensions of forms and spaces.
Conversely, all planes that are curved or oblique to the horizontal plane of projection are foreshortened. The floor plan is an orthographic projection of the portion that remains. The normal convention is to orient floor plans with north facing up or upward on the drawing th d Nor sheet.
Although this sequence can vary, depending on the nature of the building design being drawn, always try to proceed from the most continuous, regulating elements to those that are contained or defined by the elements.
It is therefore important to emphasize in a graphic way what is cut in a floor plan, and to differentiate the cut material from what we can see through space below the plane of the cut. It is drawn with a single line weight. As a profile line, this cut line must be continuous; it can never intersect another cut line or terminate at a line of lesser weight.
The farther away a horizontal surface is from the plane of the plan cut, the lighter the line weight. These lines do not signify any change in form; they simply represent the visual pattern or texture of the floor plane and other horizontal surfaces. Small- scale drawings use a tighter range of line weights than do large-scale drawings. This is especially important in large-scale plans, when large areas of black can carry too much visual weight or create too stark a contrast.
As with hand drafting, we should use a range of contrasting line weights to distinguish the profile of the elements that are cut in plan from the elements seen below the plane of the cut.
At a glance, it is difficult to discern what is cut in plan. When using drawing or CAD software to create floor plans, avoid using colors, textures, and patterns to make the drawings more pictorial than they need to be.
The primary emphasis should remain on articulating the plan cut and the relative depth of elements below the plane of the cut. This can be useful when contrasting a floor plan with its context. For this information, we must rely on elevations. What a floor plan does show, however, are the location and width of door openings, and to a limited degree, the door jambs and type of door operation—whether a door swings, slides, or folds open.
Be sure that the door width matches that of the door opening. A floor plan does disclose the location and beyond plane of cut width of window openings, and to a limited degree the presence of window jambs and mullions. They should therefore be drawn with a lighter line weight than walls, window mullions, and other cut elements. Dashed lines may also disclose the hidden lines of features concealed from view by other opaque elements.
Digital Scale In computer graphics, a small-scale drawing that contains too much data can result in an unnecessarily large file as well as a printed or plotted image that is too dense to read. The larger scale enables information about floor finishes, fittings, and trim work to be included. Conversely, the larger the scale of a floor plan, the more detail we should include.
This attention to detail is most critical when drawing the thicknesses of construction materials and assemblies that are cut in a plan view. A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing large-scale floor plans. For this reason, we usually call this view a reflected ceiling plan.
As with floor plans, it is important to profile all vertical elements that rise to meet the Flo ceiling. On a site plan, however, it is difficult to describe the vertical aspect of an undulating ground surface. Contour lines are the graphic convention we use to convey this information.
For example, a 15' contour line represents every point that is 15' above a given datum or reference point. The trajectory of each contour line indicates the shape of the land formation at that elevation.
The larger the area and the steeper the slopes, the greater the interval between contours. We can discern the topographical nature of a site by reading this horizontal spacing.
They may coincide in a plan view only when they cut across a vertical surface. One method produces a stepped model that preserves the visibility of contour lines and intervals. Another creates a warped plane or mesh for shading, consisting of polygonal, usually triangular, faces.
At these larger scales, a site plan will usually include the first- or ground-floor plan of the building in order to illustrate relationships between interior and outdoor spaces.
Whenever possible, north should be oriented up or upward on the drawing sheet or board. This approach is especially appropriate when the way in which the roofing material of the building is indicated will establish a tonal value and texture against which the surrounding context must contrast.
This technique is necessary when rendering shadows cast by the form of the building, or when landscaping elements impart a tonal value to the surrounding context. It opens up the object to reveal its internal material, composition, or assembly. In theory, the plane of the section cut may have any orientation. But in order to distinguish a section drawing from a floor plan—the other type of drawing that involves a slice—we usually assume the plane of the cut for a section is vertical.
As with other orthographic projections, all planes parallel to the picture plane maintain their true size, shape, and proportions. In architectural graphics, however, the building section is the premier drawing for revealing and studying the relationship between the floors, walls, and roof structure of a building and the dimensions and vertical scale of the spaces defined by these elements. After a vertical plane slices through the construction, we remove one of the parts.
The building section is an orthographic projection of the portion that remains, cast onto a vertical picture plane parallel or coincident with the cutting plane. Use jogs or offsets in the cutting plane only when absolutely necessary. Remember, too, that the building section is only part of a series of related orthographic views. In order to convey a sense of depth and the existence of spatial volumes, we must use a hierarchy of line weights or a range of tonal values.
The technique we use depends on the scale of the building section, the drawing medium, and the required degree of contrast between solid matter and spatial void. It is difficult to discern what is cut and what is seen in elevation beyond the plane of the cut.
Note that these profiles are always continuous; they can never intersect another cut line or terminate at a line of lesser weight. The farther back an element is from the plane of the section cut, the lighter their profile should be. These lines do not signify any change in form. They simply represent the visual pattern or texture of wall planes and other vertical surfaces parallel to the picture plane.
If shown, they are part of the surrounding soil mass and should be drawn lightly. This is especially important in large-scale sections, when large areas of black can carry too much visual weight or create too stark a contrast.
In this value scheme, use progressively lighter values for elements as they recede into the third dimension. Any tonal value given to cut elements should therefore continue into this mass.
The primary emphasis should remain on articulating the section cut and the relative depth of elements beyond the plane of the cut. The upper building section uses a vector-based drawing program while the lower drawing uses a raster image to convey the character of a site as well as serve as a contrasting background for the white section cut.
This alignment makes horizontal relationships easier to read and understand. A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing large- scale sections.
They are capable of describing the relationship of a proposed structure to the surrounding ground plane and disclosing whether a proposed structure rises from, sits on, floats above, or becomes embedded within the ground mass of the site. In addition, section drawings can effectively illustrate the relationship between the interior spaces of a building and adjoining exterior spaces, as well as the relationships among a number of buildings.
Unlike a plan, an elevation mimics our upright stance and offers a view that closely resembles the natural appearance of the object. Even though elevation views of vertical surfaces are closer to perceptual reality than either plans or section views, they cannot represent the spatial depth of a perspective drawing.
When we draw objects and surfaces in elevation, we must rely on graphic cues to convey depth, curvature, or obliqueness. Building elevations convey the external appearance of a building, compressed onto a single plane of projection. They therefore emphasize the exterior vertical faces of a building parallel to the picture plane and define its silhouette in space. They can also illustrate the texture and pattern of cladding materials, as well as the location, type, and dimensions of window and door openings.
This distance varies according to what information we wish to display in front of the building and to what degree this context will obscure the form and features of the building. They can form a horizontal sequence of drawings, or be related in a single composite drawing around a common plan view. This relationship will not only facilitate the construction of the drawings but will also East Elevation make them more understandable as a coordinated set of information.
For example, once a plan is drawn, we can efficiently transfer the horizontal dimensions of length vertically on the drawing surface to the elevation below. In a similar manner, we can project the vertical dimensions of height horizontally on the drawing surface from one elevation to one or more adjacent elevations. In architectural graphics, the orientation of a building to South Elevation the compass points is an important consideration when studying and communicating the effect of sun and other climatic factors on the design.
We therefore most often name a building elevation after the direction the elevation faces: for example, a north elevation is the elevation of the facade that faces north. For example, Main Street Elevation would be the elevation facing Main Street, or Lake Elevation would be the elevation seen from the lake. We may use a smaller scale for large buildings and complexes. A general knowledge of how buildings are constructed is therefore extremely beneficial when executing large-scale building elevations.
To convey a sense of depth, therefore, we must use a hierarchy of line weights or a range of tonal values. The technique we use depends on the scale of the building elevation, the drawing medium, and the technique for depicting the texture and pattern of materials.
In a line drawing, discernible differences in line weight can aid in suggesting the relative depth of planes. Extending this ground line beyond the building serves to describe the topographical nature of the setting. These lines do not signify any change in form; they simply represent the visual pattern or texture of surfaces. This series of drawings illustrates in a more discrete and abstract way how visual cues can enhance the sense of depth in any orthographic projection. Since this visual phenomenon relies on nearer objects overlaying or projecting in front of objects farther away, we often refer to this depth cue simply as overlap.
However, we can achieve a greater sense of intervening space and depth if we combine overlap with other depth cues, such as by varying the line weights of a pure-line drawing.
Darker and thicker profile or contour lines tend to advance and appear to be in front of lighter and thinner outlines. Objects seen up close in the foreground of our visual field typically possess more saturated colors and sharply defined contrasts in value. As they move farther away, their colors become lighter in value and more subdued, and their tonal contrasts more diffuse.
In the background, we see mainly shapes of grayed tones and muted hues. The graphic equivalent of perspective blur is a diminishing or diffusion of the edges and contours of more distant objects.
We can use either a lightly drawn line or a broken or dotted line to delineate these edges of shapes and contours of forms that exist beyond the focus of a drawing.
The graphic technique for depicting the visual phenomenon of texture perspective involves gradually diminishing the size and spacing of the graphic elements used to portray a surface texture or pattern, whether they be dots, lines, or tonal shapes. Proceed from identifying units in the foreground to delineating a textured pattern in the middleground and finally to rendering a tonal value in the background.
This depth cue implies the existence of overlapping shapes and the use of contrasting tonal values in a drawing. See Chapter 7 for more information on the use of tonal values in architectural graphics. While normally included in the drawing of building sections, they may stand alone to study and present highly detailed spaces, such as kitchens, bathrooms, and stairways.
In this case, instead of profiling the section cut, we emphasize the boundary line of the interior wall surfaces. Each type offers a slightly different viewpoint and emphasizes different aspects of the drawn subject. As a family, however, they combine the measured precision and scalability of multiview drawings and the pictorial nature of linear perspective.
Because of their pictorial quality and relative ease of construction, paraline drawings are appropriate for visualizing an emerging idea in three dimensions early in the design process. They are capable of fusing plan, elevation, and section into a single view and illustrating three- dimensional patterns and compositions of space.
Portions of a paraline drawing can be cut away or made transparent to see inside and through things, or expanded to illustrate the spatial relationships between the parts of a whole. Hence, they are also called single-view drawings to distinguish them from the multiple and related views of plans, sections, and elevations.
They can be distinguished from the other type of single-view drawing, linear perspective, by the following pictorial effects. Axial lines naturally form a rectangular grid of coordinates that we can use to find any point in three-dimensional space. We cannot measure dimensions along these nonaxial lines, nor can we draw Hor them to scale. To draw nonaxial lines, we must first izon s Axi tal locate their end points using axial measurements and Axi tal s izon then connect these points. Once we establish one Hor nonaxial line, however, we can draw any line parallel to that line, since parallel lines in the subject remain parallel in the drawing.
They lack the eye-level view and picturesque Looking from above quality of linear perspectives. Two of the most common in architectural drawing are discussed in this chapter: isometric and oblique drawings. The images that emerge from oblique projections are distinct from isometric views that develop from orthographic projection.
0コメント