Martineau, A. Reciprocal seasonal variation in vitamin D status and tuberculosis notifications in Cape Town, South Africa.
Berry, M. Nature Email: robert. Skip to main content. Honorary Professor Robert J. Share on. Being thus, as it were, the father of astronomy, he has been feigned by the poets to have been the father of the Sun and the Moon. The Moon. Being the Goddess of the Ocean, her name is here used to signify the ocean itself.
In the present instance it may be considered to mean the invisible agency of the Deity in reducing Chaos into a form of order and consistency. The element of the vaulted heaven. This is a periphrasis, signifying the regions of the firmament or upper air, in which the sun and stars move; which was supposed to be of the purest fire and the source of all flame. The lowermost place. Whoever of the Gods he was.
By this expression the Poet perhaps may intend to intimate that the God who created the world was some more mighty Divinity than those who were commonly accounted Deities. Are some of them swallowed up. He here refers to those rivers which, at some distance from their sources, disappear and continue their course under ground. Most of these, however, after descending into the earth, appear again and discharge their waters into the sea. He commanded the plains.
On the right-hand side. He here speaks of the zones. Astronomers have divided the heavens into five parallel circles. First, the equinoctial, which lies in the middle, between the poles of the earth, and obtains its name from the equality of days and nights on the earth while the sun is in its plane.
On each side are the two tropics, at the distance of 23 deg. That on the north side of the equinoctial is called the tropic of Cancer, because the sun describes it when in that sign of the ecliptic; and that on the south side is, for a similar reason, called the tropic of Capricorn. By means of these parallels, astronomers have divided the heavens into four zones or tracks. The whole space between the two tropics is the middle or torrid zone, which the equinoctial divides into two equal parts.
On each side of this are the temperate zones, which extend from the tropics to the two polar circles. And lastly, the portions enclosed by the polar circles make up the frigid zones. As the planes of these circles produced till they reached the earth, would also impress similar parallels upon it, and divide it in the same manner as they divide the heavens, astronomers have conceived five zones upon the earth, corresponding to those in the heavens, and bounded by the same circles.
That which is the middle one. Hence, the sun, which in the space of a year, performs the revolution of this circle, must in that time be twice vertical to every place in the torrid zone, except directly under the tropics, and his greatest distance from their zenith at noon, cannot exceed 47 degrees. Thus his rays being often perpendicular, or nearly so, and never very oblique, must strike more forcibly, and cause more intense heat in that spot. Being little acquainted with the extent and situation of the earth, the ancients believed it uninhabitable.
Modern discovery has shown that this is not the case as to a considerable part of the torrid zone, though with some parts of it our acquaintance is still very limited. Deep snow covers two. The two polar or frigid zones. For as the sun never approaches these nearer than the tropic on that side, and is, during one part of the year, removed by the additional extent of the whole torrid zone, his rays must be very oblique and faint, so as to leave these tracts exposed to almost perpetual cold.
He placed as many more. The temperate zones, lying between the torrid and the frigid, partake of the character of each in a modified degree, and are of a middle temperature between hot and cold. Here, too, the distinction of the seasons is manifest. For in either temperate zone, when the sun is in that tropic, which borders upon it, being nearly vertical, the heat must be considerable, and produce summer; but when he is removed to the other tropic by a distance of 47 degrees, his rays will strike but faintly, and winter will be the consequence.
The intermediate spaces, while he is moving from one tropic to the other, make spring and autumn. The brothers. That is, the winds, who, according to the Theogony of Hesiod, were the sons of Astreus, the giant, and Aurora. Eurus took his way. The Poet, after remarking that the air is the proper region of the winds, proceeds to take notice that God, to prevent them from making havoc of the creation, subjected them to particular laws, and assigned to each the quarter whence to direct his blasts.
Eurus is the east wind, being so called from its name, because it blows from the east. As Aurora, or the morning, was always ushered in by the sun, who rises eastward, she was supposed to have her habitation in the eastern quarter of the world; and often, in the language of ancient poetry, her name signifies the east. The realms of Nabath. Tacitus, in his Annals Book ii.
Are bordering upon Zephyrus. The region where the sun sets, that is to say, the western part of the world, was assigned by the ancients to the Zephyrs, or west winds, so called by a Greek derivation because they cherish and enliven nature. Boreas invaded Scythia. Under the name of Scythia, the ancients generally comprehended all the countries situate in the extreme northern regions.
The drizzling South Wind. The South Wind is especially called rainy, because, blowing from the Mediterranean sea on the coast of France and Italy, it generally brings with it clouds and rain. The forms of the Gods. But it is most probably only a poetical expression for the Gods themselves, and he here assigns the heavens as the habitation of the Gods and the stars; these last, according to the notion of the Platonic philosophers being either intelligent beings, or guided and actuated by such.
Inhabited by the smooth fishes. Could rule over the rest. This strongly brings to mind the words of the Creator, described in the first chapter of Genesis, ver. Framed him from divine elements. We have here strong grounds for contending that the ancient philosophers, and after them the poets, in their account of the creation of the world followed a tradition that had been copied from the Books of Moses. The formation of man, in Ovid, as well as in the Book of Genesis, is the last work of the Creator, and was, for the same purpose, that man might have dominion over the other animated works of the creation.
Read upon the brazen tables. It was the custom among the Romans to engrave their laws on tables of brass, and fix them in the Capitol, or some other conspicuous place, that they might be open to the view of all.
Clarions of crooked brass. Age of degenerated tendencies. Now as ships bounded. To the Stygian shades. That is, in deep caverns, and towards the centre of the earth; for Styx was feigned to be a river of the Infernal Regions, situate in the depths of the earth. Through the means of both.
Gold forms, perhaps, more properly the sinews of war than iron. The history of Philip of Macedon gives a proof of this, as he conquered Greece more by bribes than the sword, and used to say, that he deemed no fortress impregnable, where there was a gate large enough to admit a camel laden with gold. Prematurely makes inquiry.
Namely, by inquiring of the magicians and astrologers, that by their skill in casting nativities, they might inform them the time when their parents were likely to die, and to leave them their property. On leaving the earth, she was supposed to have taken her place among the stars as the Constellation of the Virgin. Olympus was a mountain between Thessaly and Macedonia. Pelion was a mountain of Thessaly, towards the Pelasgic gulf; and Ossa was a mountain between Olympus and Pelion.
These the Giants are said to have heaped one on another, in order to scale heaven. There is a way on high. The Poet here gives a description of the court of heaven; and supposing the galaxy, or Milky Way, to be the great road to the palace of Jupiter, places the habitations of the Gods on each side of it, and adjoining the palace itself.
The mythologists also invented a story, that the Milky Way was a track left in the heavens by the milk of Juno flowing from the mouth of Hercules, when suckled by her. Aristotle, however, suspected what has been since confirmed by the investigations of modern science, that it was formed by the light of innumerable stars. The ennobled Deities. The Gods of lower rank. Shook the awful locks. This awful nod of Jupiter, the sanction by which he confirms his decrees, is an idea taken from Homer; by whom it is so vividly depicted at the end of the first book of the Iliad, that Phidias, in his statue of that God, admired for the awful majesty of its looks, is said to have derived his conception of the features from that description.
He was one of the most ancient of the Deities of the sea, and was the son of Oceanus and Tethys. The Nymphs. There were also Nymphs of the sea and of the rivers; of which, the Nereids were so called from their father Nereus, and the Oceanitides, from Oceanus. There were also the Naiads, or nymphs of the fountains, and many others. Thus when an impious band.
As Augustus survived the latter conspiracy, and the parallel is thereby rendered more complete, probably this is the circumstance here alluded to. Together with Cyllene. Cyllenus, or Cyllene, was a mountain of Arcadia, sacred to Mercury, who was hence called by the poets Cyllenius. Of the Molossians. The Molossi were a people of Epirus, on the eastern side of the Ambracian gulf. Ovid here commits a slight anachronism, as the name was derived from Molossus, the son of Neoptolemus, long after the time of Lycaon.
Other writers say that it was Nyctimus, the son of Lycaon, or Arcas, his grandson, that was slain by him. Upon the household Gods. This punishment was awarded to the Penates, or household Gods of Lycaon, for taking such a miscreant under their protection. The savage Erinnys. Erinnys was a general name given to the Furies by the Greeks. To place frankincense.
In those early ages, corn or wheaten flour, was the customary offering to the Deities, and not frankincense, which was introduced among the luxuries of more refined times. Ovid is consequently guilty of an anachronism here.
That a time should come. Lactantius informs us that the Sibyls predicted that the world should perish by fire. It was a doctrine of the Stoic philosophers, that the stars were nurtured with moisture, and that on the cessation of this nourishment the conflagration of the universe would ensue.
The folds of his robe. The mouths of their fountains. The wolf swims. One commentator remarks here, that there was nothing very wonderful in a dead wolf swimming among the sheep without devouring them. Seneca is, however, too severe upon our author in saying that he is trifling here, in troubling himself on so serious an occasion with what sheep and wolves are doing: for he gravely means to say, that the beasts of prey are terrified to that degree that they forget their carnivorous propensities.
The Aonian. By name Parnassus. The Corycian Nymphs. The Corycian Nymphs were so called from inhabiting the Corycian cavern in Mount Parnassus; they were fabled to be the daughters of Plistus, a river near Delphi. There was another Corycian cave in Cilicia, in Asia Minor. The prophetic Themis. Themis is said to have preceded Apollo in giving oracular responses at Delphi. The native purple shells.
Some suppose that the meaning here is, that Triton had his shoulders tinted with the purple color of the murex. It is, however, more probable that the Poet means to say that he had his neck and shoulders studded with the shells of the murex, perhaps as a substitute for scales. He bids him blow. There were several Tritons, or minor sea gods.
The one mentioned here, the chief Triton, was fabled to be the son of Neptune and Amphitrite, who always preceded Neptune in his course, and whose arrival he was wont to proclaim by the sound of his shell. He was usually represented as swimming, with the upper part of his body resembling that of a human being, while his lower parts terminated with the tail of a fish.
The hollow-wreathed trumpet. The twisted form of the shell was one of the characteristic features of the trumpet, which, in later times, was made of horn, wood, or metal, so as to imitate the shell.
It was also blown at funerals, and at festive entertainments, both before sitting down to table and after. The bidden retreat. Now the sea. This and the two following lines are considered as entitled to much praise for their terseness and brevity, as depicting by their short detached sentences the instantaneous effect produced by the commands of Neptune in reducing his dominions to a state of order.
A common origin. The arts of my father. He alludes to the story of his father, Prometheus, having formed men of clay, and animated them with fire stolen from heaven.
The waters of Cephisus. The river Cephisus rises on Mount Parnassus, and flows near Delphi. Poured on their clothes. It was the custom of the ancients, before entering a temple, either to sprinkle themselves with water, or to wash the body all over. Cover your heads. It was a custom among the ancients to cover their heads in sacrifice and other acts of worship, either as a mark of humility, or, according to Plutarch, that nothing of ill omen might meet their sight, and thereby interrupt the performance of the rites.
Descended from Titan. Pyrrha was of the race of the Titans; for Iapetus, her grandfather, was the son of Titan and Terra. Under the same name. The seven-streamed Nile. The river Nile discharges itself into the sea by seven mouths. It is remarkable for its inundations, which happen regularly every year, and overflow the whole country of Egypt. To this is chiefly owing the extraordinary fertility of the soil of that country; for when the waters subside, they leave behind them great quantities of mud, which, settling upon the land, enrich it, and continually reinvigorate it.
Instituted sacred games. Yet Pausanias, in his Corinthiaca, tells us that they were instituted by Diomedes; others, again, say by Eurylochus the Thessalian; and others, by Amphictyon, or Adrastus. They were most probably originally a religious ceremonial, and were perhaps only a musical contest, which consisted in singing a hymn in honor of the Pythian God, accompanied by the music of the cithara.
In later times, gymnastic and equestrian games and exercises were introduced there. Previously to the 48th Olympiad, the Pythian games had been celebrated at the end of every eighth year; after that period they were held at the end of every fourth year.
When they ceased to be solemnized is unknown; but in the time of the Emperor Julian they still continued to be held. Crown of beechen leaves.
This was the prize which was originally given to the conquerors in the Pythian games. In later times, as Ovid tells us, the prize of the victor was a laurel chaplet, together with the palm branch, symbolical of his victory. The Delian God. The Peneus was a river of Thessaly.
A fillet tied together. It was of various colors: white and purple are mentioned. The nuptial torch. Plutarch tells us, that it was the custom in the bridal procession to carry five torches before the bride, on her way to the house of her husband. Among the Romans, the nuptial torch was lighted at the parental hearth of the bride, and was borne before her by a boy, whose parents were alive. The torch was also used at funerals, for the purpose of lighting the pile, and because funerals were often nocturnal ceremonies.
They were used by travellers and others, who were forced to be abroad after sunset; whence the reference in line to the hedge ignited through the carelessness of the traveller, who has thrown his torch there on the approach of morning. Here in rude guise.
Claros and Tenedos. Claros was a city of Ionia, famed for a temple and oracle of Apollo, and near which there was a mountain and a grove sacred to him. There was an island in the Myrtoan Sea of that name, to which some suppose that reference is here made.
Patara was a city of Lycia, where Apollo gave oracular responses during six months of the year. It was from Patara that St. The properties of simples. The first cultivators of the medical art pretended to nothing beyond an acquaintance with the medicinal qualities of herbs and simples; it is not improbable that inasmuch as the vegetable world is nourished and raised to the surface of the earth in a great degree by the heat of the sun, a ground was thereby afforded for allegorically saying that Apollo, or the Sun, was the discoverer of the healing art.
A similar expression occurs in the Heroides, v. The youthful God. Apollo was always represented as a youth, and was supposed never to grow old. The Scholiast on the Thebais of Statius, b. As when the greyhound. The comparison here of the flight of Apollo after Daphne, to that of the greyhound after the hare, is considered to be very beautifully drawn, and to give an admirable illustration of the eagerness with which the God pursues on the one hand, and the anxiety with which the Nymph endeavors to escape on the other.
Pope, in his Windsor Forest, has evidently imitated this passage, where he describes the Nymph Lodona pursued by Pan, and transformed into a river. His words are—. And now his shadow reached her as she run,. And so is the virgin. Her elegance alone. My lyre. The players of the cithara, the instrument of Apollo, were crowned with laurel, in the scenic representations of the stage.
The song of triumph. The Poet here pays a compliment to Augustus and the Roman people. The laurel was the emblem of victory among the Romans. Before his doors. Call it Tempe. Tempe was a valley of Thessaly, proverbial for its pleasantness and the beauty of its scenery. Mount Pindus. Pindus was a mountain situate on the confines of Thessaly.
Like thin smoke. He speaks of the spray, which in the fineness of its particles resembles smoke. The Enipeus rises in Mount Othrys, and runs through Thessaly. Virgil Georgics, iv. The Apidanus, receiving the stream of the Enipeus at Pharsalia, flows into the Peneus. This river ran through that part of Thessaly known by the name of Phthiotis. Pliny the Elder Book iii, ch. It was a small limpid stream, running through Epirus and Thessaly, and discharging itself into the Ionian sea.
This was a river of Argolis, now known as the Naio. This was a swampy spot on the Argive territory, where the poets say that the dragon with seven heads, called Hydra, which was slain by Hercules, had made his haunt.
It is not improbable that the pestilential vapors of this spot were got rid of by means of its being drained under the superintendence of Hercules, on which fact the story was founded. Some commentators, however, suppose the Lerna to have been a flowing stream. So often detected. Into a sleek heifer. To keep on duty. He was the father of Jasius and of Inachus, the parent of Io. Some accounts, however, say that Inachus was the father of Phoroneus, and the son of Oceanus. Pleiad Maia. Soporiferous wand.
It was represented as an olive branch, wreathed with two snakes. A cap for his hair. Nonacris was the name of both a mountain and a city of Arcadia, in the Peloponnesus. The Ortygian Goddess. This was a beautiful river of Arcadia, flowing into the Alpheus: its banks were covered with vast quantities of reeds. Some commentators have endeavored to reconcile these discrepancies; but the probability is, that Ovid, like many other poets, used his epithets at random, or rather according to the requirements of the measure for the occasion.
The Cyllenian God. Mercury is so called from Cyllene, in Arcadia, where he was born. That his sight was wrapped. The Argive mistress. The linen-wearing throng. The priests, and worshippers of Isis, with whom Io is here said to be identical, paid their adoration to her clothed in linen vestments.
Probably, Isis was the first to teach the Egyptians the cultivation of flax. Herodotus, in his second book, tells us, that this son of Jupiter, by Io, was the same as the Egyptian God, Apis. Eusebius, quoting from Apollodorus, says that Epaphus was the son of Io, by Telegonus, who married her. She was a Nymph of the sea, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. To our regions. Ethiopia, which, in the time of Ovid, was generally looked upon as one of the regions of the East.
The rays of the Sun. In the McKay text, this and the following three footnotes—one full page—were misprinted as instead of Apollo, having sworn, by the river Styx, to refuse him nothing that he should desire, he immediately asks to guide his chariot for one day.
He is unsuccessful in the attempt, and, the horses running away, the world is in danger of being consumed. The palace of the Sun was raised high, on stately columns, bright with radiant gold, and carbuncle that rivals the flames; polished ivory covered its highest top, and double folding doors shone with the brightness of silver.
The workmanship even exceeded the material; for there Mulciber had carved the sea circling round the encompassed Earth; and the orb of the Earth, and the Heavens which hang over that orb.
The features in all are not the same, nor, however, remarkably different: they are such as those of sisters ought to be. The Earth has upon it men and cities, and woods, and wild beasts, and rivers, and Nymphs, and other Deities of the country. Over these is placed the figure of the shining Heaven, and there are six Signs of the Zodiac on the right door, and as many on the left.
Soon as the son of Clymene had arrived thither by an ascending path, and entered the house of his parent, thus doubted of; he immediately turned his steps to the presence 47 II. On his right hand, and on his left, the Days, the Months, the Years, the Ages, and the Hours were arranged, at corresponding distances, and the fresh Spring was standing, crowned with a chaplet of blossoms; Summer was standing naked, and wearing garlands made of ears of corn; Autumn, too, was standing besmeared with the trodden-out grapes; and icy Winter, rough with his hoary hair.
Let the lake, by which the Gods are wont to swear, and which is unseen, even by my eyes, be as a witness of my promise. His father repented that he had so sworn, and shaking his splendid head 59 II.
I wish I were allowed not to grant what I have promised! I confess, my son, that this alone I would deny thee. Still, I may dissuade thee: thy desire is not attended with safety. Thy lot is that of a mortal; that which thou desirest, belongs not to mortals. Nay , thou 48 II. Let every one be self-satisfied, if he likes ; still, with the exception of myself, no one is able to take his stand upon the fire-bearing axle-tree.
Even the Ruler of vast Olympus, who hurls the ruthless bolts with his terrific right hand, cannot guide this chariot; and yet , what have we greater than Jupiter?
The first part of the road is steep, and such as the horses, though fresh in the morning, can hardly climb. In the middle of the heavens it is high aloft, from whence it is often a source of fear, even to myself, to look down upon the sea and the earth, and my breast trembles with fearful apprehensions. The last stage is a steep descent, and requires a sure command of the horses. Then, too, Tethys 3 herself, who receives me in her waves, extended below, is often wont to fear, lest I should be borne headlong from above.
Besides, the heavens are carried round 4 with a constant rotation, and carry with them the lofty stars, and whirl them with rapid revolution. Against this I have to contend; and that force which overcomes all other things, does not overcome me; and I am carried in a contrary direction to the rapid world. Suppose the chariot given to thee ; what couldst thou do? Couldst thou proceed, opposed to the whirling poles, so that the rapid heavens should not carry thee away? Perhaps, too, thou dost fancy in thy mind that there are groves, and cities of the Gods, and temples 60 II.
Hardly are they restrained by me, when their high-mettled spirit is once heated, and their necks struggle against the reins. But do thou have a care, my son, that I be not the occasion of a gift fatal to thee, and while the matter still permits, alter thy intentions.
Thou askest, forsooth, a sure proof that thou mayst believe thyself sprung from my blood? I give thee a sure proof in thus being alarmed for thee ; and by my paternal apprehensions, I am shown to be thy father.
Lo, behold my countenance! I wish, too, that thou couldst direct thy eyes into my breast, and discover my fatherly concern within! Finally, look around thee, upon whatever the rich world contains, and ask for anything out of the blessings, so many and so great, of heaven, of earth, and of sea; and thou shalt suffer no denial.
Why, in thy ignorance, art thou embracing my neck with caressing arms? Doubt not; whatever thou shalt desire shall be granted thee by the Stygian waves I have sworn it ; but do thou make thy desire more considerately. Wherefore, his parent having delayed as long as he could, leads the young man to the lofty chariot, the gift of Vulcan.
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